HVAC Systems Design Handbook

Introduction
This chapter is devoted to ‘‘fundamental’’ fundamentals—certain principles which lay the foundation for what is to come. Starting with the original author’s suggested thought process for analyzing typical problems,  the  reader  is  then  exposed  to  a buzzword  of  our  time:  value engineering. Next follows a discussion of codes and regulations, political criteria which constrain potential design solutions to the bounds of public health and welfare, and sometimes to special interest group sponsored  legislation. 
The  final  sections  of  the  chapter  offer  a  brief review of the basic physics of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)    design in discussions of fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, heat transfer,  and psychrometrics. 
Numerous  classroom  and  design office  experiences  remind  us  of  the  value  of  continuous awareness of the physics of HVAC processes in the conduct of design work.

Contents
HVAC Engineering Fundamentals
Design Procedures: Part 1 Load Calculations
Design Procedures: Part 2
Design Procedures: Part 3 Air-Handling Systems
Design Procedures: Part 4 Fluid-Handling Systems
Design Procedures: Part 5 Central Plants
Design Procedures: Part 6 Automatic Controls
Equipment: Part 1 Cooling
Equipment: Part 2 Heating
Equipment: Part 3 Air-Handling Systems
Electrical Features of HVAC Systems
Design Documentation: Drawings and Specifications
After Design: Through Construction to Operation
Technical Report Writing
Engineering Fundamentals: Part 1 Fluid Mechanics
Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2 Thermodynamics
Engineering Fundamentals: Part 3 Heat Transfer
Engineering Fundamentals: Part 4 Psychrometrics
Engineering Fundamentals: Part 5 Sound and Vibration
Indoor Air Quality
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Alnor HVAC Handbook 2007

HVAC Systems, Comfort, and Energy Management

Energy management is central to all building functions. HVAC systems typically account for over one third of a facility’s energy consumption, so it is imperative to properly manage the operation of HVAC systems to ensure economical operation while providing a comfortable, safe environment for occupants.

One group of tools widely recommended for HVAC system performance testing, verification, and energy audits are test and balance instrumentation. These tools are designed to measure air velocity, air volume, temperature, humidity, CO2, and noise level from heating and air conditioning ventilation ducts to identify problems with airflows, outside air mixing, system balancing, indoor air quality, and occupant comfort. Test instruments provide a means to properly measure and document key HVAC parameters by identifying potential energy conservation measures that can significantly reduce facility energy expenditures.

Measurement tools will help assess the operating efficiencies and discover system problems such as clogged filters, dirty coils, inoperative dampers, improperly programmed building control system loops, excessive outside air, defective thermostats and sensors, and simultaneous heating and cooling—all of which contribute to inefficient HVAC system operation, wasting considerable money. Information from testing is used in building and HVAC system commissioning reports, used to benchmark system performance, and to identify areas of energy waste.

Today’s HVAC systems must be energy efficient, satisfy stringent indoor air quality and comfort expectations, and still be designed/constructed within tight budgets. System designs meeting these demands have many components, sub-systems, and controls. Building construction involves many specialized trades that often work independently of one another which can produce HVAC systems that may not perform properly. Without measurement and verification of the optimum operation of systems, performance will fall far short of design specifications, increasing building operating costs needlessly while wasting energy.

Alnor products are ideal for commissioning projects since they are portable and have datalogging capabilities, making it easy to document system performance on a regular basis. Alnor test instruments are available for many different measurement applications and are designed to save money and minimize testing time. These tools can quickly pay for themselves when properly used to measure, diagnose, and correct building HVAC system performance. In addition, these tools can be used to periodically spot-check systems to confirm efficient and economical operation as part of a buildingwide, systematic, preventative maintenance program.

Contents

Introduction

    General
    HVAC Systems, Comfort, and Energy Management
    TAB: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing
    Certification and Clean-air Measurements
     IAQ
    Combustion Analysis

Measurement Instrumentation

    Capture Hoods
         Mechanical (Analog) Capture Hoods
         Digital Capture Hoods
         Digital Capture Hoods with Differential Pressure Sensor
    Thermo-Anemometers (Hot-Wires)
         Basic Thermo-Anemometers
         Thermo-Anemometers with Mathematical Calculations
         Comprehensive Thermo-Anemometers
    Rotating Vane Anemometers
         Mechanical Rotating Vanes
         Digital Rotating Vanes
    Deflecting Vane (Swinging Vane) Anemometers
         6000AP Velometer
        Velometer Jr
    Manometers
         Inclined Gauge Manometer
         Digital Micromanometer
         Digital Auto-Zeroing Micromanometer
         Pitot Tube
    Hydronics
         Mechanical Gauges
         Digital Hydronic Manometers
     IAQ: Ventilation and Carbon Dioxide
         Basic CO2 Instrumentation
         CO2  and Comfort Instrumentation

    Thermo-Hygrometers: Temperature and Relative Humidity
         Basic Thermo-Hygrometers
         Datalogging Thermo-Hygrometers
    Manual Gas Measurements (Combustion System)
    Portable Electronic Combustion Analysis Instruments
    Continuous Emission Monitors

Measurement Basics

    HVAC System Performance
         Measuring Air Velocity and Air Volume at Supply Grilles/Diffusers
         Nonuniform Flow Corrections
         Static Pressure Measurement
         Exhaust Grille Measurements
         Duct Traversing: Low to High Velocities and at High Air Temperatures
         Measuring Air Velocity in Open Areas

Testing and Certification
         Differential Pressure Measurement Between Two Rooms or Areas
         Spray Booths
         Laboratory Hoods
         Unit Ventilators
         Measuring Slot Velocities
         Clean Room Testing and Certification
    Thermal Comfort and IAQ
        Air Temperature Measurement
         Relative Humidity Measurement
         CO2  Measurements

    Taking Gas Samples
    Temperature and Draft Measurements
    Soot Measurements

Appendixes

    Appendix A—Performing a Duct Traverse
        Where to Take the Measurement
        Traversing a Round Duct
        Traversing a Square Duct
    Appendix B—Capture Hood Flow Resistance
    Appendix C—Characterizing a Capture Hood to an Outlet Using a Correction Factor
    Appendix D—Determining the Percentage of Outside Air Using Either Temperature or CO2 Measurements
    Appendix E—Air Changes per Hour (ACH)
    Appendix F—Thermal Comfort: Temperature and Humidity
    Appendix G—Density Correction
         Density Correction for Thermo-Anemometers
         Density Correction for Pressure Based Manometers or Deflecting Vane Anemometers
    Appendix H—Useful Calculations
        Total Pressure Formula
         Converting Velocity Pressure to fpm
        Air Flow Formulas
        Area Formulas
         Subtracting Obstructions From Area
         Hydronic Equations
    Appendix I—Common HVAC Blueprint Symbols
    Appendix J—Typical HVAC System Showing Some Measurement  Locations
    Appendix K—Fuel Specifications and Energy Units
         Fuel Specifications
         Energy Units
    Appendix L—Sample Boiler Tune-Up Procedure
        Tune-up Procedure—Using an Electronic Combustion Analyzer
Glossary
References
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Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

Preface

During the past 20 years, design and operation of the comfort systems for buildings have been transformed because of energy conservation imperatives, the use of computer-based design aids, and major advances in   intelligent   management  systems   for buildings. 
In the 1970s, rules of thumb were widely used by designers. Today,  a strong analytical basis for the design synthesis   process is standard  procedure. 
This handbook describes the latest methods for design and operation of new and existing buildings. In addition, the principles of life cycle economics are used routinely in design selections and tradeoffs. The information in this handbook is presented in a practical way that building systems engineers will find useful.
The book is divided into eight sections:

    1.  Introduction to the buildings sector
    2.  Fundamentals
    3.  Economic aspects of buildings
    4.  HVAC equipment and systems
    5.  Controls
    6.  HVAC design calculations
    7.  Operation and maintenance
    8.  Appendices

   Because of ongoing and rapid change in the HVAC industry, new material will be developed prior to the standard handbook revision cycle. By link to the CRC Web site, the author will be periodically posting new material that owners of the handbook can access.

 Table of Contents

Section 1 Introduction to the Buildings Sector

Introduction  Jan F. Kreider

Section 2  Fundamentals

      2.1   Thermodynamic and Heat Transfer Basics       Vahab Hassani and Steve Hauser
      2.2   Psychrometrics and Comfort      T. Agami Reddy

Section 3         Economic Aspects of Buildings

      3.1   Central and Distributed Utilities  Anthony F. Armor and Jan F. Kreider
      3.2   Economics and Costing of HVAC Systems        Ari Rabl

Section 4 HVAC Equipment and Systems

      4.1   Heating Systems    Jan F. Kreider
      4.2   Air Conditioning Systems    Dennis L. O ’Neal and John A. Bryant
      4.3   Ventilation and Air Handling Systems    Ellen M. Franconi and James B. Bradford
      4.4   Electrical Systems  Moncef Krarti

Section 5 Controls

      5.1   Controls Fundamentals     Peter S. Curtiss
      5.2   Intelligent Buildings  Michael R. Brambley, Peter Armstrong, Michael Kintner-Meyer,
            Robert G. Pratt, and Srinivas Katipamula

Section 6 HVAC Design Calculations

      6.1   Energy Calculations — Building Loads     Ari Rabl and Peter S. Curtiss
      6.2   Simulation and Modeling — Building Energy Consumption
            Joe Huang, Jeffrey S. Haberl, and Jan F. Kreider
      6.3   Energy Conservation in Buildings    Max Sherman and David Jump
      6.4   Solar Energy System Analysis and Design     T. Agami Reddy

Section 7  Operation and Maintenance

      7.1   HVAC System Commissioning        David E. Claridge and Mingsheng Liu .
      7.2   Building System Diagnostics and Preventive Maintenance
            Srinivas Katipamula, Robert G. Pratt, and James Braun

Section 8 Appendices

Paul Norton

Appendix A
Properties of Gases and Vapors

Appendix B
Properties of Liquids

Appendix C
Properties of Solids

Appendix D
Gases and Vapors

Appendix E
Composition and Heating Values of Common Fuels
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Handbook Of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

ABOUT  THE  AUTHOR

Shan K. Wang received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from Southwest Associated University in China in 1946. Two years later, he completed his M.S. degree in mechanical engineering at Harvard Graduate School of Engineering. In 1949, he obtained his M.S. in textile technology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

From 1950 to 1974, Wang worked in the field of air conditioning and refrigeration in China. He was   the   first Technical   Deputy   Director   of   the   Research   Institute   of Air   Conditioning   in   Beijing from 1963 to 1966 and from 1973 to 1974. He helped to design space diffusion for the air conditioning system in the Capital and Worker’s Indoor Stadium. He also designed many HVAC&R systems   for   industrial   and   commercial   buildings.   Wang   published   two   air   conditioning   books and many papers in the 1950s and 1960s. He is one of the pioneers of air conditioning in China.

Wang joined Hong Kong Polytechnic as senior lecturer in 1975. He established the air conditioning and refrigeration laboratories and established courses in air conditioning and refrigeration at Hong Kong Polytechnic. Since 1975, he has been a consultant to Associated Consultant Engineers and led the design of the HVAC&R systems for Queen Elizabeth Indoor Stadium, Aberdeen Market Complex, Koshan Road Recreation Center, and South Sea Textile Mills in Hong Kong. From 1983
to   1987,  Wang   Published  Principles of Refrigeration Engineering and Air Conditioning as the teaching and learning package, and presented several papers at ASHRAE meetings. The First Edition of the Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration was published in 1993.

Wang has been a member of ASHRAE since 1976. He has been a governor of the ASHRAE Hong Kong Chapter-At-Large since the Chapter was established in 1984. Wang retired from Hong Kong Polytechnic in June 1987 and immigrated to the United States in October 1987. Since then, he has joined the ASHRAE Southern California Chapter and devoted most of his time to writing.

PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION
Air conditioning, or more specifically, heating, ventilating, air ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigeration   (HVAC&R),  was   first   systematically   developed   by   Dr.   Willis   H.   Carrier   in   the   early 1900s. Because it is closely connected with the comfort and health of the people, air conditioning became one of the most significant factors in national energy consumption. Most commercial buildings in the United States were air conditioned after World War II.
In 1973,  the energy crisis stimulated the development of variable-air-volume systems, energy management, and other   HVAC&R technology.

In the 1980s,  the introduction of microprocessor based direct-digital control systems raised the technology of air conditioning and refrigeration to a higher level. Today, the standards of a successful and cost-effective new or retrofit HVAC&R projects   include maintaining a healthy and comfortable indoor environment with adequate outdoor ventilation air and acceptable indoor air quality with an energy index lower than that required by the federal and local codes, often using off-air conditioning schemes to reduce energy costs.

The purpose of this book is to provide a useful, practical, and updated technical reference for the design, selection, and operation of air conditioning and refrigeration systems. It is intended to summarize the valuable experience, calculations, and design guidelines from current technical papers, engineering   manuals,  standards, ASHRAE   handbooks,  and other   publications in air conditioning and refrigeration.

It is also intended to emphasize a systemwide approach, especially system operating characteristics at design load and part load. It provides a technical background for the proper selection and operation of optimum systems, subsystems, and equipment. This handbook is a logical combination of practice and theory, system and control, and experience and updated new technologies.
Of the 32 chapters in this handbook, the first 30 were written by the author, and the last two were written by Walter P. Bishop, P. E., president of Walter P. Bishop, Consulting Engineer, P. C., who has been an HVAC&R consulting engineer since 1948. Walter also provided many insightful comments for the other 30 chapters. Another contributor, Herbert P. Becker, P. E., reviewed Chaps.
1 through 6. 
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The Copper Tube Handbook

Since primitive man first discovered copper, the red metal has constantly served the advancement of civilization.
Archaeologists probing ancient ruins have discovered that this enduring metal was a great boon to many peoples.
Tools for handicraft and agriculture, weapons for hunting, and articles for decorative and household uses were wrought from copper by early civilizations.
The craftsmen who built the great pyramid for the Egyptian Pharaoh Cheops fashioned copper pipe to convey water to the royal bath.
A remnant of this pipe was unearthed a testimonial to copper’s durability and resistance to corrosion.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
UNDERSTANDING COPPER TUBE
I. STANDARD TUBES
Types of Copper Tube
Properties
Identification of Copper Tube
II. SELECTING THE RIGHT TUBE FOR THE JOB
 Advantages of Copper Tube
 Recommendations for Various Applications
III DESIGN AND INSTALLATION DATA
Pressure System Sizing
Pressure Ratings and Burst Strength
Drainage Plumbing Systems
Copper Tube for Heating Systems
Ground Source Heat Pumps
Nonflammable Medical Gas Piping Systems
Snow-Melting Systems
Irrigation and Agricultural Sprinkler Systems
Solar Energy Systems
General Considerations

TECHNICAL DATA
TABLES:           
TABLE 1. Copper Tube: Types, Standards, Applications, Tempers, Lengths
TABLE 2. Dimensions and Physical Characteristics of Copper Tube:
2a: Type K
2b: Type L
2c: Type M
2d: DWV
2e: ACR Tube for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Field Service
2f: Medical Gas, K and L
TABLE 3. Rated Internal Working Pressure for Copper Tube:
3a. Type K
3b. Type L
3c. Type M
3d. DWV
3e. ACR
TABLE 4a. Pressure-Temperature Ratings of Soldered and Brazed Joints
TABLE 4b. Pressure-Temperature Ratings of No-flame Joints
TABLE 5. Actual Burst Pressures, Type K, L and M Copper Water Tube, psi at Room Temperature
TABLE 6. Pressure Loss of Water Due to Friction in Types K, L and M Copper Tube
TABLE 7. Pressure Loss in Fittings and Valves Expressed as Equivalent Lengths of Tube
TABLE 8. Radii of Coiled Expansion Loops and Developed Lengths of Expansion Offsets
TABLE 9. Dimensions of Solder Joint Ends for Wrought and Cast Fittings
TABLE 10. Solder Requirements for Solder-Joint Pressure Fittings
TABLE 11. Typical Brazing Filler Metal Consumption
TABLE 12. Filler Metals for Brazing
FIGURES: FIGURE 1. Arrangement for anchoring DWV stack passing through a concrete floor
FIGURE 2. Collapsing pressures of copper tube, types K, L and M
FIGURE 3. Expansion vs. temperature change for copper tube
FIGURE 4 a,b,c. Coiled expansion loops and expansion offsets
FIGURE 5. Selected pressure fittings
FIGURE 6. Dimensions of solder joint fitting ends
FIGURE 7. Melting temperature ranges for copper and copper alloys, brazing filler metals, flux and solders
FIGURE 8. Brazing flux recommendations

WORKING WITH COPPER TUBE
IV. BENDING
TABLE:           
TABLE 13. Bending Guide for Copper Tube
V. JOINING METHODS
 Solder or Brazed Joints
 Solders
 Fluxes
VI. FITTINGS, SOLDERS, FLUXES
Fittings
Solders
Fluxes
VII. SOLDERED JOINTS
Measuring and Cutting
Reaming
Cleaning
Applying Flux
Assembly and Support
Heating
Applying Solder
Cooling and Cleaning
Testing
VIII. BRAZED JOINTS
Brazing Filler Metals
Fluxes
Assembly
Applying Heat and Brazing
Horizontal and Vertical Joints
Removing Residue
General Hints and Suggestions
Testing
Purging
IX. FLARED JOINTS
X. ROLL GROOVE JOINTS
Preliminary Requirements
Installation Steps
Testing
XI. PRESS-CONNECT JOINTS
Preliminary Requirements
Installation Steps
Testing
XII. PUSH-CONNECT JOINTS
Preliminary Requirements
Installation Steps
Testing
XIII. MECHANICALLY FORMED EXTRUDED OUTLETS
Preliminary Requirements
Installation Steps
Testing
APPENDIX
XIV. ORGANIZATIONS
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HVAC Ducts Handbook

HVAC design – combining comfort with efficiency When defining an HVAC installation, comfort is the most obvious primary consideration, as it is invariably the main reason for installing an HVAC system in the first place. As a first step the parameters that define comfort need to be identified – temperature, humidity, air replenishment  and   noise   levels   etc. These   then   need   to   be   regulated   to   deliver   the   perception   of comfort to the user.

However, this needs to be achieved with the rational and efficient use of energy, in turn saving natural resources, and also money at the local level. Furthermore, it is also vital to factor ‘safety’ into the design, since, irrespective of what and where, a ‘safe solution’ is the only solution The air duct distribution network is an important component of HVAC installations, helping to significantly reduce energy costs and reduce noise nuisance generated by the system’s equipment.

ISOVER solutions for HVAC – The safe option for saving energy and providing comfort ISOVER provides solutions for HVAC ducts and pipes in glass wool, stone wool and ULTIMATE mineral wool, which help not  only to deliver desired levels of comfort  but  also both reduce energy consumption  and  contribute  significantly to fire safety.
ISOVER  solutions   provide   possibly   the   best combination of thermal and acoustic comfort, energy efficiency and safety for the user.

Contents
1.  INTRODUCTION
2.  AIR DUCTS AND INSULATION SOLUTIONS
2.1.  Metal Ducts
2.2. Glass wool ductboards CLIMAVER
2.3. Plastic ducts
2.4. Flexible ducts
3.  THERMAL INSULATION IN HVAC DUCT WORK
3.1.  Calculating insulation thicknesses
3.2. Thermal insulation of ducts
3.3. Condensation risks
4.  ACOUSTIC INSULATION IN HVAC DUCT WORK
4.1.  Origins and paths of sound transmission in installations
4.2. Solutions for installation noise
5.  FIRE PROTECTION IN HVAC DUCT WORK
5.1. Reaction to fire
5.2.  Fire resistance
6.  PRESSURE LOSSES I N AIR DUCTS
6.1.  Static, dynamic and total pressure
6.2. Pressure losses
7.  AIR QUALITY – THE ROLE OF HVAC DUCTS
7.1. Air ducts factors influencing IAQ
7.2.  Duct cleaning
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