C O N T E N T S
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING
1.2 THE NEED FOR RADICAL THINKING
2 REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
2.3 VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS
2.3.1 Operating Principle
2.3.2 Refrigerants: Ozone Depletion and Global Warming
2.3.3 Types of Compressor & Capacity Control
2.3.4 Evaporators
2.3.5 Condensers
2.3.6 Expansion Valves
2.4 SUB-COOLING
2.5 SUPERHEATING
2.5.1 Secondary Coolants
2.5.2 Specific Power Consumption of Vapour Compression Systems
2.6 VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
2.6.1 Operating Principle
2.7 CAPACITY CONTROL
2.7.1 Specific Fuel Consumption Of Vapour Absorption Systems
2.8 COOLING TOWERS
3 STRATEGIES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENERGY SAVING
3.1 MINIMISING REFRIGERATION & AIR-CONDITIONING
3.2 OPERATING AT HIGHER EVAPORATOR TEMPERATURE
3.3 ACCURATE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE
3.4 REDUCTION IN HEAT LOADS
3.5 MINIMISING HEAT INGRESS
3.6 REDUCING VENTILATION HEAT LOAD
3.7 USING FAVOURABLE AMBIENT CONDITIONS
3.8 USE EVAPORATORS AND CONDENSERS WITH HIGHER HEAT TRANSFER EFFICACY
3.9 ENERGY SAVING OPPORTUNITIES IN NORMAL OPERATION
3.10 MAINTENANCE TO ENSURE ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION
3.11 ENERGY SAVING IN LOW RELATIVE HUMIDITY AIR CONDITIONING
3.12 DESUPERHEATER FOR RECOVERING CONDENSER WASTE HEAT
3.13 INTER-FUEL SUBSTITUTION: ELECTRICITY SAVINGS BY USE OF ABSORPTION CHILLERS
3.14 GENERAL TIPS TO SAVE ENERGY IN COOLING TOWERS
4 THERMAL STORAGE FOR MAXIMUM DEMAND CONTROL
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 TECHNOLOGIES
5 SYSTEM DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION: ENERGY ISSUES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 IMPORTANT ISSUES
5.2.1 Energy Cost
5.2.2 Refrigeration Load Estimation
5.2.3 System Design
5.2.4 Minimise Heat Ingress – Select Right Thermal Insulation
5.2.5 Sizing & Selecting the Right Refrigeration Machine
5.2.6 Controls for Energy Efficiency
6 CASE STUDIES
6.1 CASE STUDY 1: OPERATIONAL SAVING – CORRECT REFRIGERANT CHARGING
6.2 CASE STUDY 2: MATCHING COMPRESSOR CAPACITY TO ACTUAL LOAD BY SPEED VARIATION
6.3 CASE STUDY 3: REPLACEMENT OF INEFFICIENT CHILLER
6.4 CASE STUDY 4: INNOVATIVE RETROFIT PRECISION TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
6.5 CASE STUDY 5: ELIMINATION OF RE-HEAT IN LOW RELATIVE HUMIDITY AIR CONDITIONING
6.6 CASE STUDY 6: LARGER HEAT EXCHANGERS IMPROVE COP
6.7 CASE STUDY 7: ELECTRONIC EXPANSION VALVES SAVE ENERGY
6.8 CASE STUDY 8: PRE-COOLING OF AUDITORIUM VENTILATION AIR
6.9 CASE STUDY 9: ENERGY SAVING IN FRUIT COLD STORES
6.10 CASE STUDY 10: TRI-FUEL CHILLER OPTIONS SAVES COST
7 REFERENCES
8 CONVERSION TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Schematic Diagram of Vapor Compression System
Figure 2-2: Pressure – Enthalpy Diagram for Vapour Compression System
Figure 2-3: Roller Compressor
Figure 2-4: Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
Figure 2-5: Reciprocating Compressor
Figure 2-6: Recips - Power at Part Load Operation
Figure 2-7: Screw Compressor
Figure 2-8: Screw - Power at Part Loads
Figure 2-9: Scroll Compressor
Figure 2-10: Centrifugal Compressor
Figure 2-11: Centrifugals – Power at Part Loads
Figure 2-12: Air Handling Unit for Cooling Air
Figure 2-13: Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers
Figure 2-14: Plate Heat Exchanger
Figure 2-15: Grooved Tubes to Increase Surface Area
Figure 2-16: Tube Inserts to Increase Turbulence
Figure 2-17: Some Commonly Used Condensers
Figure 2-18: Schematic Diagram of Superheat Sensing Expansion Valve
Figure 2-19: Anti-freeze Solutions – Change in Freezing Point with Concentration
Figure 2-20: Schematic Diagram of Single Effect Absorption Chiller
Figure 2-21: Schematic Diagram of Double Effect Absorption Chiller
Figure 2-22: Schematic Diagram of Triple Effect Absorption Chiller
Figure 2-23: Counter-flow Induced Draft
Figure 2-24: Cross-flow Induced Draft
Figure 2-25: Variation of Cooling Water Leaving Temperature with Variation in Ambient WBT
Figure 3-1: Building Structure Cooling: Grid of Pipes on the Roof and Floor
Figure 3-2High Speed Door
Figure 3-3: Dock Leveler helps seal back of truck with building
Figure 3-4: Example of good thermal insulation in a chilled water system
Figure 3-5: Typical Modern Building with Glass Façade
Figure 3-6: Heat Pipes
Figure 3-7: Heat Wheel
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Summary of Status of Some Refrigerant Groups
Table 3-1: Reduction in Roof Underside Temperature due to Structure Cooling
Table 3-2: Effect of Evaporator and Condenser Temperatures on Refrigeration Machine Performance
Table 3-3: Heat Ingress into Air-conditioned Space through Open Doors
Table 3-4: Properties of Different Types of Window Glass
Table 5-1: Thumb Rules for Calculating Comfort Air-conditioning Load
Table 5-2: Thermal Conductivities of Some Insulating Materials
Table 5-3: Insulation thickness for Refrigeration Piping
Table 5-4: Comparison of Likely Energy Consumption for a Typical 100 TR Air-Conditioning System
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